Water-closets ~ Flush Toilets

While doing some research on indoor plumbing I stumbled across the term "watercloset". This struck me as odd because I know that term refers to "the room with a toilet". So, I redirected my energies in that direction.

As it turns out, the beginnings of what we know as the flush toilet was invented in 1585 by Sir John Harrington and installed for his grandmother Queen Elizabeth I at Richmond Palace. He published a work called A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, Called the Metamorphosis of Ajax. The main feature was a a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl.

In 1775 the S-trap was invented by Alexander Cumming. It used standing water to seal the drain, preventing foul air from the sewer from coming into the chamber. His design had a sliding valve in the bowl outlet above the trap.

Joseph Bramah improved the design by replacing the usual slide valve with a hinged flap that sealed the bottom of the bowl. In 1778 he obtained a patent for a float valve system for the flush tank.

In 1829 architect Isaiah Rogers, designed the Tremont Hotel in Boston with eight water closets on the ground floor. In 1834 he built the Astor House in New York City.

In the 1840s, George Jennings had a business manufacturing water closets, salt-glaze drainage, sanitary pipes and sanitaryware at Parkstone Pottery. During The Great Exhibition in 1851, he installed his Monkey Closets in the Retiring Rooms of The Crystal Palace and charged a penny to use it. This started the term "to spend a penny" meaning to use the pay toilet. He continued to make improvements to the design. By the 1860s English building codes suggested that new homes be built with water closets.

Published in The Young Housekeeper, 1852
"In every respectable family house there will generally be two or three water-closets, and it is expected that the housemaid should understand the proper method of keeping them always sweet and clean, and fit for use;- this is easily done with a little attention: all that is requisite is to know the time the water comes into the cistern, and while it is coming in, to lift up the handle of the water-closet and let the water rush away; then put the handle down, let the basin fill again with water, and, raising up the handle, let it off again with a rush; and so continue to do for full five minutes at least, once every day,- and families should never allow printed or stiff paper to be used, or it will stop and spoil the best water-closets; only thin whitey-brown, or curl paper is proper.
If a water-closet should get clogged, either from using still printed paper, or from want of using plenty of water, or from any other cause, it is best to ask your mistress to let you desire the plumber to bring his plunger, with which he will easily set it free, at the expence of a shilling, if he is an honest man; for not onetime in if hundred does it require any thing else to be done to it, if plenty of water is used; for which purpose it is good to take off the ball-cock in the cistern, and let all the waste water, after the cistern is full, run off through the waste pipe; which will tend to keep the drains clean, and also prevent the water freezing in winter weather."

In 1857 William Campbell and James T. Henry received an American patent for a plunger closet. It resembled the twin-basin water closets.

In 1859, Nicolay August Andresen, a banker in Norway insured 3 water closets in his town house.

In the 1859 the Alfred Vidal Davis family of Natchez, Miss., had indoor hot-and-cold running water and an indoor toilet. This home later became the Dunleith Inn. The shower and flush toilet system was sold by a company in New Orleans called Price & Coulon.

From Godey's Magazine, 1859

An alternate term for water closet was "wash down closet". Before the tern water closet was use the toilet was sometimes referred to as the earth closet or toilet chair. I actually like toilet chairs and they really went by many names depending on the when and where. Other names for this piece of furniture are close stool, necessary stool, night stool, convenience, and night commode.

New Fabric On The Way

My husband had so much fun at the Winter Ball in Gettysburg that he is finally open to the idea of dressing up and accompanying us to events.... such as other balls and perhaps a baseball game this summer. He currently has nothing in the way of historical clothing. So, of course it was time to go shopping. I happened to see some great fabrics at fashionfabricsclub.com and made my order.


I am a little hesitant because the last order I placed with them took over two weeks to get to me. I'm hoping that I get my fabric sooner than that. Most of the fabric I purchased with him in mind, other items in the order were just too good to pass up.




Tan & Brown Plaid Medium Weight Linen



I love plaid. This can be a sack coat or pair of pants. If my husband doesn't like it, I do have two boys that could benefit from new suits.



Solid Cocoa Brown Lightweight Linen



Here is an example of a deal too good to pass up. I had originally picked this for part of my husband's summer picnic suit but now I am thinking that it will be too thin. I may be able to use it with a lining but if it's unusable for him, we will just call it brown Holland and make boy's aprons.



Dusty Plum & Ivory Plaid Light Weight Linen



I did mention that I like plaids, right? This cute plaid is for the vest or waistcoat front. It will be lined with white cotton twill, the same will be used for the vest back. I really can't see using all of this for just one vest so I am hoping that I can get a mini vest too, for one of my boys.



Chestnut Brown Wool Twill Suiting



This is another piece that I have high hopes for but I'm not really sure about the weave. I am wanting to make pants from this but I love browns and this would go beautifully in my modern sewing. If my husband bales on the idea of dressing up before the piece gets cut.... it's all mine.



Antique Gold Plaid Wool Suiting



I love the colors in this piece. It has antique gold, blue, green, burgundy and white in it, according to the description. I'll have to inspect it more closely once it have it in hand, just to make sure. This is a light to medium wool and I'm hoping that it will make a nice vest front. The back will be brown polished cotton. There was only one yard of this available. I would have loved to get a long length for a bigger project. Again, if the weight or weave isn't correct, this will be joining my modern fabric projects list.

Natural Canvas 10 oz

This is just a fun piece. I've been wanting to try my hand at making a painted floor cloth and now I can. I am also playing with the idea of making my own tent for our trip to the National 19th Century Base Ball Festival in July. I'll want to see how well I can sew the hem on my machine before I take on the task of sewing an entire tent. I'll probably play with grommets as well.

Here are some inspirational images to keep me going:

Fishing Creels For The Boys

I saw the cutest little baskets, weeks ago, and knew I wanted them for the boys. They were a bit high in price and I wanted to do some research before I purchased them so we just got them recently. They are the cutest little oblong, lidded baskets with leather straps. They make perfect junior sized creels, except for the missing hole in the lid.

We picked up one for each of the boys. I'd love it if no fish ever was put in these but I'm not holding my breath on that one, these are boys after all. My intention for getting them was for packing lunches and toys for day trips to local events.

My biggest issue was in finding period examples in painting, woodcuts, fashion plates, stories, etc. I found plenty on fishing for grown men but very little for boys. As it turns out, fishing creels have not changed much in the last several hundred years. So the shape is correct.... I'm just stuck on how common they were in miniature size.

Gardening In June

From The Kitchen and Fruit Gardener 1847

June

If the weather in this month prove dry, the growth of many esculent plants will be considerably retarded, particularly the beans and peas which are in flower, the blossoms of which fall off before arriving at maturity, and, consequently, are not succeeded by fruit. A certain degree of attention is therefore necessary to give a regular supply of water to the growing crops.

There is no work in the kitchen garden which at this time requires greater attention than the eradication of weeds; many will now begin to perfect their seeds, which, being shed on the ground, will occasion a considerable degree of labour for several years to accomplish their extirpation.

Every part of the kitchen garden should now be kept in a neat and well regulated condition; and a constant attention should be paid to the progress of all seeds committed to the ground. Those that vegetate freely should be forwarded by hoeing, thinning, and watering; and in those cases, where the seed has failed, it should be immediately resown: no time should be lost when such circumstances occur. Some crops such as beets, onions, parsnips, and some others, may be restored by transplanting them from those places where they may have come up too thick. The depredations of insects should be guarded against as much as possible, until the crops are rather advanced; for after they have formed their rough, or perfect leaves, few insects attack them, at least not so as to endanger the crop. When recourse is had to watering, it should be applied as late in the afternoon as possible, or early in the morning, but never during the middle of the day. When the ground can be kept in a moist state during the warm months of summer, the most luxuriant crops may be expected.

Beans and Peas for late crops should be sown both at the beginning and also at the end of this month. Those which are now in blossom should be examined and topped. Earth up and otherwise stir the surface of the advancing crops, as necessity may require. At this time, the crops which were formerly planted should be hoed and earthed up. Cabbage and broccoli plants which are fit should be planted out. Transplant spring sown cabbage of all sorts for autumn and winter use. Earth up the early and general crops of cabbage as they advance; the former will now be advancing to maturity, and may be forwarded in cabbaging, if the leaves be tied together with strings of matting. The general crops of onions should, towards the middle or end of the month, be cleared from weeds: this operation should be performed with a narrow hoe, which will not only destroy the weeds, but by stirring up the surface, will contribute much to the growth of the crop. The crops of potatos as they advance should be earthed up. Prick out celery plants sown in March: a slight watering to be given every other evening. Continue to sow and transplant all sorts of lettuces: give plenty of water both to the newly sown and also to the transplanted ones. Tie up to blanch the forward crops of lettuces; choosing a dry day for that purpose. A full crop of kidney beans may now be planted. Propagate by sowing, cuttings, or dividing the roots, all sorts of herbs. A small sowing of ruta baga may now be made, deferring the principal one till the middle of next month. Beets may also be sown for a late winter and spring supply; the early part of June will also be timely for the sugar beet, If not attended to the preceding month.

June Meals According To Mrs. Beeton

Plain Family Dinners for:
Sunday - 1 Salmon, trout and parsley and butter, new potatoes. 2 fillet of veal, boiled bacon, cheek, spinach, vegetables. 3 Gooseberry tart, custard.
Monday - 1 Light gravy soup, Small meat pie, minced veal with rolled bacon, spinach and potatoes. 2 Raspberry and currant tart.
Tuesday - 1 Baked mackerol, potatoes. 2 Boiled leg of lamb with young carrots. 3 Lemon pudding. Wednesday - 1 Vegetable soup. 2 Calf s liver and bacon, peas hashed lamb from remains of cold joint. 3 Baked gooseberry pudding.
Thursday - 1 Roast ribs of beef, Yorkshire pudding, peas, potatoes. 2 Stewed rhubarb and boiled rice.
Friday - 1 Cold beef and salad, cutlets and peas. 2 Boiled gooseberry pudding and baked custard pudding.
Saturday - 1 Rump steak pudding, broiled beef bones and cucumber, vegetables. 2 Bread pudding.

~

Sunday - 1 Roast fore-quarter of lamb, mint sauce, peas and new potatoes. 2 Gooseberry pudding, strawberry tartlets, fondue.
Monday - 1 Cold lamb and salad, stowed neck of veal and peas, young carrots and new potatoes. 2 Almond pudding.
Tuesday - 1 Green pea soup,2 Roast ducks stuffed, gravy, peas and new potatoes. 3 Baked ratafia pudding.
Wednesday - Roast leg of mutton, summer cabbage, potatoes. 2 Gooseberry and rice pudding.
Thursday - 1 Fried soles, melted butter, potatoes. 2 Sweetbreads, hashed mutton, vegetables. 3 Bread and butter pudding.
Friday - 1 Asparagus soup. 2 Boiled beef, young carrots and new potatoes, suet dumplings. 3 College puddings.
Saturday - 1 Cold boiled beef and salad, lamb cutlets and green peas. 2 Boiled gooseberry pudding and plain cream.
 
 Things in Season
Fish - Carp, crayfish, herrings, lobsters, mackerel, mullet, pike, prawns, salmon, soles, tench, trout, turbot.
Meat - Beef, lamb, mutton, veal, buck venison.
Poultry - Chickens, ducklings, fowls, green geese, leverets, plovers, pullets, rabbits, turkey poults, wheatears.
Vegetables - Artichokes, asparagus, beans, cabbages, carrots, cucumbers, lettuces, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, small salads, sea kale, spinach, various herbs.
Fruit - Apricots, cherries, currants, gooseberries, melons, nectarines, peaches, pears, pineapples, raspberries, rhubarb, strawberries.

Kitchen Garden Plans

Taken from The Country Gentleman 1854

"PLAN OF A KITCHEN GARDEN
Where all the work is done with the spade, and no ornamental planting is desired, the plan furnished by our correspondent ("A Pupil of the Cultivator,") is a simple and good one, and no doubt as well adapted to the intended purpose as any we could furnish. In the country, where horse labor is always at command, a great saving is effected by laying out the kitchen garden so as to admit the use of the plow, subsoiler, cultivator, and harrow.

In the above figure (Fig 1), we have endeavored to show an arrangement for this purpose, where dwarf fruits trees, currant and gooseberry bushes, &c., are planted in continuous rows across the garden; the crops of vegetables being panted between, and the whole cultivated by a horse, which turns about at the ends on the spaces or alleys, a, a. The flower garden and ornamental part occupy a strip at the centre, on each side of tho alley, b, b. If desired this part may be wholly omitted. Fig 2, shows the more common way of laying out kitchen gardens into quarters, where, it will be observed, horse labor can not be introduced."

Here we have an illustration of "the more common way of laying out kitchen gardens into quarters". Notice they are Not calling this a German Four Square Garden.

From The Gardener's Text-Book 1851

"INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS

By the phrase "Internal Arrangements", we mean the division of the garden into quarters borders beds walks etc This laying out the ground must be regulated wholly by the taste of the gardener and we therefore venture to offer only a few hints in regard thereto instead of giving precise directions As far as our opinion may be worthy of notice we should recommend regular divisions made by the square and line Such are most easily laid out and most conveniently kept in order Serpentine walks with crescent star or bean shaped beds are all very appropriate for the flower garden but they seem hardly suited for such humble tenants as cabbages potatoes and onions It is a rule to be constantly borne in mind by the proprietor of a kitchen garden that his main object be utility rather than ornament.

At least one path should be of sufficient width to admit the wagon or cart which will be required at certain seasons to bring in dung or to carry off produce Foot paths need not be over three feet wide and the alleys between the beds not over twelve or eighteen inches The border extends all around the garden and is from six to ten feet wide with a foot path in front The beds ought to be narrow say four or five feet wide such being the most easy to cultivate The numerous alleys of course occupy a great deal of room but they possess the advantages of convenience and neatness in enabling the workmen to clean or gather the crops without trampling upon the beds The principal paths might be dug out to tire depth of two feet or more and then become places of deposit for the stones removed from the quarters A thin layer of gravel tan or even common earth would render the paths hard and dry to the feet at all seasons.

In connection with the above hints a diagram or plan of our own garden may be deemed not out of place It will be found on the following page It is in the shape of a parallelogram running east and west with the entrance on the south side The border inside the fence is about eight feet wide that part facing the west smith and east is adapted for such plants as require a warm exposure and the other for such as need shelter from the mid day sun In front of the border is a foot path three feet wide Directly in the centre of the garden is the tool house beneath which is a good location for a cistern Here meet the four principal paths winch divide the large plat into four equal parts or quarters as they are generally called by English gardeners These paths are of sufficient width to admit the wagon which can turn around the tool house and return through the same path so as to avoid the necessity of having more than one entrance The quarters are of equal size so that a four year rotation of crops may readily be observed The tool house and cistern being in the centre are convenient of access from every part of the grounds Currants gooseberries raspberries and quinces are set out on the edges of the principal paths running north and south and the grape vines are trained upon the fence Dwarf fruit trees might be placed in the border where neither their roots nor their tops would be likely to occasion much injury.

 This short description will enable any intelligent reader who approves of the plan to adopt it with such modifications as his own taste may suggest.

Although in this business of laying out a garden ornament is a mere secondary consideration yet perfect regularity and neatness are attained with little extra labor and they will certainly add much to the gardener's interest in the spot. The eccentric William Cobbett said that it is quite as reasonable for a man to take pleasure in a garden which is tastefully arranged and tidily kept as it is for a woman to delight in a fine dress and he will be as anxious to preserve the neat appearance of the beds and walks as she to protect her gown from dust or grease from being faded by the sun or eaten by moths. We all take best care of that which is most pleasant to the eye."

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From The Kitchen Garden 1855

The Border
"A wide border (BB) will be carried entirely round the garden at the foot of the wall. This will serve according to aspect to raise early vegetables, to receive small seed beds of cabbages, lettuces and other things which are transplanted afterwards as well as those which require temporary pricking out such as celery, and part of it may be permanently occupied by sweet herbs, medicinal plants and other useful stock vegetables, part also may be devoted to horticultural experiments. It is convenient to have in a kitchen garden a little plot wherein to put surplus seeds and roots of flowers that are not wanted at the moment in the flower garden and the pleasure ground. Not only is it convenient to have such a supply in reserve to fall back upon in case of accident elsewhere but, as bouquets and cut flowers are always in request, these can be gathered ad libitum without fear of despoiling the parterre."

The Path
"A straight rectangular gravel path (PP) will go round the whole. Cross paths (pppp) will lead to the centre.... "

The Center
".. there should be, if not a fountain (F) with its basin to receive the water ejected, and always standing full ready for watering, at least a tank, or cistern, or shallow well, with a sufficient supply of water from some source or other."

The 4 Plots
".. there will remain in the middle, the four distinct open plots of ground (G G G G) which constitute the main body of the garden for cropping for the supply of vegetables in quantities."

May Meals According To Mrs. Beeton

MAY
Plain Family Dinners for:
Sunday - 1 Vegetable soup. 2 Saddle of mutton, asparagus and potatoes. 3 Gooseberry tart custards.
Monday - 1 Fried whitings, anchovy sauce. 2 Cold mutton, mashed potatoes, stewed veal. 3 Fig pudding.
Tuesday - 1 Haricot mutton made from remains of cold mutton rump steak, pie. 2 Macaroni.
Wednesday - 1 Roast loin of veal and spinach, boiled bacon, mutton cutlets and tomato sauce. 2 Gooseberry pudding and cream.
Thursday - 1 Spring soup. 2 Roast leg of lamb, mint sauce, spinach curried veal and rice. 3 Lemon pudding.
Friday - 1 Boiled mackerel and parsley and butter. 2 Stewed rump steak, cold lamb and salad. 3 Baked gooseberry pudding.
Saturday - 1 Vermicelli. 2 Rump steak pudding, lamb cutlets, and cucumbers. 3 Macaroni

~

Sunday - 1 Boiled salmon and lobster or caper sauce. 2 Roast lamb, mint sauce, asparagus, potatoes. 3 Plum pudding, gooseberry tart
Monday - 1 Salmon warned in remains of lobster sauce and garnished with croutons. 2 Stewed knuckle of veal and rice, cold lamb and dressed cucumber. 3 Slices of pudding warmed and served with sugar sprinkled over Baked rice pudding.
Tuesday - 1 Roast ribs of beef, horseradish sauce, Yorkshire pudding, spinach and potatoes. 2 Boiled lemon pudding.
Wednesday - 1 Fried soles, melted butter. 2 Cold beef and dressed cucumber or salad, veal cutlets and bacon. 3 Baked plum pudding.
Thursday - 1 Spring soup. 2 Calfs liver and bacon, broiled beef bones, spinach and potatoes. 3 Gooseberry tart.
Friday - 1 Roast shoulder of mutton, baked potatoes, onion sauce, spinach. 2 Currant dumplings.
Saturday - 1 Broiled mackerel, fennel sauce or plain melted butter. 2 Rump steak pie, hashed mutton, vegetables. 3 Baked arrowroot pudding.
  
Things in Season
Fish - Carp, chub, crabs, crayfish, dory, herrings, lobsters, mackerel, red and gray mullet, prawns, salmon, shad, smelts, soles, trout, turbot.
Meat - Beef, lamb, mutton, veal.
Poultry - Chickens, ducklings, fowls, green geese, leverets, pullets, rabbits.
Vegetables - Asparagus, beans, early cabbages, carrots, cauliflowers, cresses, cucumbers, lettuces, pease, early potatoes, salads, sea kale, various herbs.
Fruit Apples - green apricots, cherries, currants for tarts, gooseberries, melons, pears, rhubarb, strawberries."

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I am assuming that the 1, 2 and 3 are shortened and mean 1st course, 2nd course and 3rd course.

There are several things that I find very interesting about these lists. The first thing that struck me was the number of vegetables in the weekly meal plan. I am wondering if people in rural communities ate more greens than those in the city simply because they had more access to it or if this list is accurate of the diet of the average person.

My second realization is the large variety of meat cuts and fish that are listed. In modern life, we eat a select few types and cuts of meat. While we eat fish, most that are listed are new to me entirely.

At the end, I was completely surprised that rabbit is listed in with poultry. We have domestic rabbits and I know that people eat rabbit, but I would have listed it with game or lamb.

Gardening In May

From The Kitchen and Fruit Gardener 1847

May

Let all the coverings that may have been used to protect either winter or early spring crops, be now cleared away. Rough dig all vacant ground, and hoe and rake all the small borders. Use the hoe freely amongst crops of onions, spinach, &c. Destroy all weeds as they appear. Have all roots, docks, dandelions, and similar weeds, carefully dug up with a fork, and immediately removed from the garden. Be careful to destroy all snails and slugs.

After a shower of rain, draw the earth up to the stems of cabbages and cauliflower plants. Birds being very destructive to the seeds of all the cabbage tribe, it will therefore be necessary to guard them by covering the beds with mats, or with old fishing nets, until the seeds begin to vegetate.

Sow and plant all sorts of cabbages, and earth and clear from weeds the crops already planted. Take advantage of dry weather to stir the surface about the stems of all the forward crops of cabbages, by which they will be greatly strengthened. Sow full crops of savoys both at the beginning and end of the month.

Peas should be sown twice this month, or in succession, as the previous sowing appears above ground. Beans likewise, at similar intervals of time, when frequent crops are required. Of the dwarf kidney or bush beans, there are many varieties; among the better and more productive kinds, are the red and brown valentine, and China red eye.

The Lima and the Carolina, or Servee beans, may now be planted.

Rhubarb may be sown or planted. The large giant rhubarb is the most productive in the open ground, and Buck's scarlet for forcing.

Carrots should now be sown, - the long orange and the early horn, are the finest for table use. A full crop of parsneps should also be sown.

The celery plants which were sown in March or April, for an early crop, should be pricked out about the middle or latter end of this month, into a nursery bed of rich light earth.

Plant the main crop of potatos. This is the best month in the year for the purpose. Sets should now be used, cut to two or three eyes only.

Continue to sow and transplant lettuces of all sorts. Sow each sort separately, and repeat the sowings and plantings once every fortnight or three weeks, that a regular supply may be obtained. Sow radishes of different sorts every week during the summer. Give plenty of water in dry weather: if this be not attended to, they will be hard, and unfit for use. Thin the crops already sown.

Peppers or capsicums, and tomatos, may be sown for transplanting; cucumbers, squashes, nasturtiums, and other tender vegetables, may now be safely planted. All pot herbs such as thyme, sage, mint, balm, &c., should now be planted.

Outdoor Seating

Having a place to sit and relax to admire your gardening accomplishments as well as the great out doors is very important. Here is what is said about outdoor seating in A Dictionary of Modern Gardening 1847.

SEATS

"SEATS require to be in unison with the portion of the pleasure grounds in which they are placed. In shady retired spots, they may be made of the limbs of trees, (see Rustic) but near the house, or among the parterres, where trimness is the prevailing characteristic, more art is desirable to be apparent in their construction. They may be made of wood, and so constructed as to shut up, so that the seat is never wet; and if painted annually they last for many years. Made of iron, they are more in appearance, and if painted yearly, will not iron mould dresses which rest upon them. Being made of open work, the wet does not rest upon them, and they are soon dry even after heavy rains. The following (Figs 153, 154) are made by Messrs. Dean, King William Street, London.

Ornamental Garden Fences

Here is an illustration of ornamental garden fences from A Dictionary of Modern Gardening, 1847.

"The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black are the most pleasing to many."

I personally like the center one, painted white, for it's simplicity and ease of instillation.

It is interesting that the book also mentions a reference to a fence law passed in Pennsylvania in the 1700s stating that "all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed shall be well fenced with fence at least five feet high and close at the bottom". Living in said province, I can personally attest to the need for such a fence especially around the corn as well as tomatoes, peas, lettuce, squash and anything else that you want to grow. Without a fence as described, you will loose all that you have planted to the deer. The need to make a law concerning this is a bit baffling however. By 1728, the book tell us, that the law had been amended to state that the fence only had to be 4 foot tall and could be off the ground as much as 9 inches but no more.

Gardening In April

From The Kitchen and Fruit Gardener 1847

April

This is the month in which most seeds are sown, and garden operations performed in the climate of Philadelphia. The weather has usually become, by the first fortnight in April, comparatively settled; severe frost may no longer be expected; therefore, if the earth be sufficiently dry, and the weather mild, the various branches of cropping should be attended to with diligence. No time should be lost in committing to the soil the requisite seeds and roots of plants.

In light dry soils, it will be an advantage to sow and plant early, whereby the plants will gain sufficient strength to resist the droughts of summer, but in such as are cold, wet, and late, the state of the weather must determine the time of sowing. It is always better to wait until the ground be in a fit state to receive the seed, than to sow too early, as many of the less hardy seeds will not vegetate freely, indeed, scarcely at all, if sown at this early period of the year, when the ground is wet. Rough dig all ground not immediately required.

The gravel walks should now be put in order for the season.

Plant beans of any kind, for all sorts succeed well from this time of planting. Now plant full supplies of the best sorts for principal crops. The Windsor and long podded beans may still be planted, if not previously done.

Sow marrowfat or other late peas, once a fortnight, or three weeks at farthest, particularly some dwarf green imperial marrowfats. All the sorts should now be sown in open situations, not under low spreading trees. Cover the peas that are a little above ground to within an inch of their whole height with light mould. If the weather be dry, give a little water to settle the mould about them; if frosty, protect them for a few nights with branches, or any other slight covering.

Remove the cauliflower plants which have been in frames, or in warm borders, during the winter. Raise some earth to the stems of the plants, which are under bell or hand glasses: it will strengthen them, and assist their growth.

The glasses may still be kept over the plants, but must be continually raised at least a hand's breadth high, or in fine days, the glasses may be taken off, and let the plants have the benefit of warm showers of rain.

The New Zealand spinach should be sown in a slight hot bed; it will spread, and afford an abundant supply.

It will be early enough, towards the middle or the end of the month, to sow broccoli; for if sown earlier, the plants are apt to start or button. The "purple cape" succeeds best in this climate.

Both red and white celery seed should be sown. If the seed be sown in rich vegetable mould, and kept rather moist, it will thrive the better. Water the bed frequently in dry weather.

Drumhead, Flat Dutch, and Savoy Cabbage seed, for the principal winter crop, should be sown about the middle or towards the latter end of the month, in an open situation.

Transplant cabbage plants of all kinds into the places where they are to remain to cabbage. It may be done the beginning or middle of this month, but if the plants be strong, the sooner it is now done, the better. Sow the seeds of cabbages of any kind for autumn and winter use. Red cabbage seed should also be sown towards the latter end of this month, to raise some plants for winter use.

Sow radishes, both the earlier sorts and the yellow turnip rooted, for a succession.

Continue to protect mushroom beds from frost and rain, either of which would destroy the spawn.

Onions should be sown for a general crop.

Colored Eggs For Easter

In The Every-day book or The Guide To The Year there is a very interesting history of the colored Easter egg. I especially like the part about the eggs being played with my young boys in the grass or thrown. These boiled eggs were marked with tallow and then submerged into dyes to add the color or they were dyed and then the dye was scraped off to make the design. Names of children, along with their ages, was marked on the eggs and the eggs were then given to then as gifts for Easter. To begin the reading you will want to go to the bottom of the first page where the title reads, "Easter Eggs".

Stones Cut "en Cabochon"

Stones cut en cabochon for the purpose of setting in mid 19th century jewelry are as follows:

Agate
Violet Quartz or Amethyst
Beryl or Aquamarine
Carnelian
Chrysoprase
Emerald
Carbuncles (Garnets)
Jade
Lapis Lazuli
Malachite
Labrador Felspar or Blue Moonstone
Moonstone
Chalcedony or Black Onyx
Opal
Oriental Sapphire
Star Sapphire in red or blue
Oriental Calaite or Turquoise

Lapidary Work in Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, by C. Holtzapffel 1850

This is in depth material on lapidary work in the early Victorian era. A "must read" manual.

Lapidary Work 1854

This lapidary table is very interesting:

and a rim rises about two inches above the top to catch the waste emery and water thrown off by the mill. In the left hand compartment are a hole and a collar through which passes the vertical spindle of the driving wheel a the lower conical end fitting in a rail of the frame. The driving wheel is about eighteen inches in diameter and works just below the under surface of the bench top it is worked by a horizontal handle c.

In the right hand compartment the spindle d carries the mill which is about eight or nine inches diameter and revolves about an inch above the surface of the bench but it may be adjusted by means of a flange and screwed nut to a greater or less distance according as the edge or side of the mill is required to be used.

In the figure the lower centre is a square wooden rod passing through a mortise in a transverse rail of the frame and kept to the desired height by a side wedge. By this contrivance lap spindles of various lengths may be accommodated. The top end of the spindle also works in a wooden centre screwed into a hole near the end of a horizontal iron and e which slides upon a perpendicular bar and is retained at the proper height by the binding screw g. The pulley is about four inches in diameter and is fixed on the spindle just below the bench top.

A little to the right and in advance of the lap is an iron support h called a gim peg or germ peg about eight inches high and in the form of a crank it is secured below the bench by a wing nut so as to allow the peg to be moved round to different distances from the lap as may be required. Its use is to support the arm of the workman in grinding the edges of small stones and also to serve as a guide for the vertical angle in cutting facets for which purpose a wooden socket shown in the figure is slipped over the upper part of the rod and held in its place by a wedge. Holes or notches arranged round the sides of the socket serve to determine the inclination of the stick upon which the stones to be cut are cemented.

A Popular Treatise On Gems 1859

Marbled Paper

I have become very interested in marbled paper and it's uses in Mid-Century home life. It is well known that this style of paper was extensively used in the book binding industry.... but what else was it used for? Here are the references that I have found so far:

"The old fashioned marbled paper, still extensively used by bookbinders, is made in a remarkable way. A viscid kind of paint-liquid is prepared, on the surface of which different colours are intermingled; and the sheet of paper is dexterously laid on this surface, from which it draws up a film of the intermingled colours." From Paper: Its Applications and Its Novelties 1853

In A catalogue of Pictures, Busts, Bronzes etc at Hendersyde Park 1859. There are listed references to marbled paper boxes. They are small, circular or oblong boxes with shell cameos.

Taking Tea

Illustrations of tea time:

This amazing woodcut is from Arthur's Home Magazine 1857, entitled Mathematical Abstraction. The detail of the table is fantastic. You can clearly make out the tea strainer, butter, tea cups and tea pot. I'm not sure what the open box is, perhaps a tea caddy or safe. I also really like the book shelf hanging on the wall behind the table.

Kitchen Utensils

Here, I have found some very interesting items for the kitchen. Firstly a wire dish cover. How this will save the wonderful dishes that we prepare from the infestation of flies and flying bugs.

 

 

Secondly there is a wonderful water cooler that will keep ice water cold for a long while.

 

Thirdly, a very nice, new style refrigerator. The ice is kept in the top and the cool air moves down through wire shelves.

 

 

Lastly, there is the matter of this new patent ice-cream freezer.

 

 

Found in Arthur's Home Magazine 1857

Aquariums!!!

Oh, how fun!! I just came across this, rather long, article entitled Marine and Fresh Water Aquariums. I am so excited! I will be keeping my eye out for a rounded bowl like the one illustrated. (Click Here for the full article)